Bette Dowdell asked:


Bette Dowdell

Problems of the endocrine system are everywhere, often unacknowledged and untreated by most doctors. People talk freely about the thyroid, and they should; it’s estimated 40% of us have thyroid problems. Adrenal fatigue is in style–and uglier than massive shoulder pads ever were–so we’re familiar, at least a little, with the adrenal glands. And we know about the ovaries and testes, as well as the pancreas–at least with its problem child, diabetes.

We don’t know about the King of the Endocrine Hill, the pituitary, though. Doctors don’t check for it. Articles in popular magazines don’t talk about it. It’s just not on our radar, but it should be.

So let’s talk about the pituitary. A little tear-shaped gland, it hangs from the base of our brains not far behind the bridge of our nose. It’s called the master gland because, as I say, it’s the King of the Endocrine Hill.

It doesn’t take much to injure the pituitary. One study found that 68% of healthy people who suffered a concussion ended up with a damaged pituitary gland. Even a mild concussion. During a concussion, our brains bang around against our skulls, and the poor little pituitary can take a real hit.

And that’s trouble. The whole endocrine system suffers when the King is halfway off the throne and not really ruling the kingdom. Problems may arise quickly, or they may show up years later, but sooner or later, things start falling apart–the thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, etc.

You look fine. People think you are fine. But you aren’t fine.

I tell you all of this because to fix a problem, you have to know what it is. And I know you’ve been wondering why you feel like death struck by a brick.

Doctors have been taught not to take minor concussions seriously. They may not even tell you they suspect you have one.

If you think you may have suffered a concussion, you can find a good description of what a concussion feels like from the inside looking out at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9Xso4qGdlI&feature=related

Watch all the parts of the video–it takes about a half hour or so–and see if you identify with how he describes the concussion experience. If so, that may give you insight into your endocrine issues. Knowledge is power.

Having suffered a concussion in an auto accident, I identified with most of the video–all but the kind of hopeless feeling it gave me: It seemed to say you have no reason to hope for better days if you don’t heal quickly. I disagree.

Furthermore, I believe passivity loses most of its battles. So don’t even suggest that I should give up and spend the rest of my days doing a beached whale impression. Not ever. And I recommend you get your “OH, YEAH!” attitude on, too.



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Reas Johnson asked:


We now live in a chemical world. We can’t imagine our lives without it. Chemicals are so integrated into our lives that they have now escaped the millions of products, appliances and objects that once contained them and have now entered our bodies.

The book, Silent Spring opened our eyes to the dangers of chemical pollutants but little did Rachel Carson know the depth of damage they could cause. Silent Spring made us see chemicals in a different light. They were no longer the miracle workers of modern society but were looked upon with suspicion after the publication of the book.

During the 1950’s the U.S embarked on campaigns to control various aspects of the natural world. Ambitious, I know, and some will claim an over-exaggeration but the facts speaks for themselves. During this period there was more than a five-fold increase of production of synthetic pesticides with more than 650 million pounds of pesticides produced in the U.S alone. These pesticides were distributed with impunity using sprays, dusts and aerosols to farms, gardens, forests and homes. As Rachel Carson so eloquently put in Silent Spring; in less than two decades, synthetic chemicals had been so thoroughly distributed in the world that they could be found virtually anywhere. From river systems to animals and wildlife, chemicals were everywhere… and that was in the 1950s!

The chemical industry has grown a lot since the days of Silent Spring. There are much more chemicals out there in the environment and they can now be found in even more remote places. Since its boom in the 1940s and 50s, well over 80,000 new chemicals have been used in industry with hundreds been introduced every year. As a consequence it is estimated that most of us carry more than 250 synthetic chemicals within our bodies. It is so common that we’ve even given the fact a name; it’s called our toxic body burden. All of us now have one.

Fortunately, most of these chemicals are safe. But there are a few that are known to be very dangerous and some of these have been measured in appreciable amounts within a few people.

But even though toxic levels of chemical pollutants are seriously not good for you, it seems that we should even be more worried about the imperceptibly small levels of synthetic chemicals within us.

Rachel Carson spoke about the possible relationship between Cancers and chemical pollutants. There has been, over the last 70 years a significant increase in the incidence of certain types of Cancers. This of course could be due to the increased use of pesticides and chemicals in everyday products over the same period of time. But these chemicals could be playing a more darker role within our bodies.

Recent studies have linked a number of chemicals, namely, PCBs (banned but still persistent in the environment), DDT (partially banned), bisphenol A (still commonly used) and phthalates (still commonly used) to a range of reproductive and developmental disorders seen recently in nature and in humans. These chemicals have been called endocrine disruptors because of their capacity to interfere with workings of the endocrine system.

The effects of endocrine disruptors goes deep into the processes that make us human and they do so at a time that we’re at our most vulnerable. They operate by mimicking hormones, interfering with the messages they pass on. But most crucially, endocrine disruptors cause the most damage during important stages of foetal development in the womb. The processes they damage can cause reproductive disorders that are sometimes not apparent until the child reaches adulthood.

Rachel Carson in Silent Spring hinted at the possibility of something going seriously wrong if we didn’t control our use of synthetic chemicals. It seems that her predictions may have come to pass. But we have committed ourselves completely towards the use of chemicals and so the way forward looks difficult and hard. Like the measures we need to take to combat the threat of global warming, it seems that we also have make yet more personal sacrifices to secure the reproductive health of the human race.



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Juliet Cohen asked:


Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndromes influence the thyroid and other endocrine glands that produce hormones in the body. Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and regulate the role of cells and tissues throughout the body. Multiple endocrine neoplasia involves tumors in at least two endocrine glands; tumors can also develop in other organs and tissues. These growths can be noncancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant). There are three forms of MEN: MEN1 (Wermer’s syndrome), MEN2A (Sipple syndrome), and MEN2B (previously known as MEN3).

Multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes can appear in infants or in people as old as age 70. Type 1 and type 2 are distinguished by the genes involved, the types of hormones made, and the characteristic signs and symptoms. Many different types of tumors are related with multiple endocrine neoplasias. Type 1 frequently involves tumors of the parathyroid gland, pituitary gland, and pancreas. Tumors in these glands lead to the overproduction of hormones. MEN I is caused by a defect in a gene called RET. Risk factors for MEN I include a family history of this disorder, a previous pituitary tumor, and a history of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.

The most common symptom of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 is overactivity of the parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism). Hyperparathyroidism dislocates the normal balance of calcium in the blood, which can lead to kidney stones, thinning of bones, nausea and vomiting, high blood pressure (hypertension), weakness, and fatigue. The most common sign of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 is a form of thyroid cancer called medullary thyroid carcinoma. Some people with this disorder also develop a pheochromocytoma, which is a tumor of the adrenal glands that can cause dangerously high blood pressure.

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 is separated into three subtypes: type 2A, type 2B, and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC). These subtypes discord in their characteristic signs and symptoms and risk of exact tumors; for example, hyperparathyroidism occurs only in type 2A. No comprehensive treatment is available for genetic conditions such as MEN. MEN 2A is treated with surgery. Diazoxide can be used to inhibit release of insulin. Hormone replacement therapy is given when glands are removed or do not produce enough hormones. High dose proton pump inhibitors are required for gastrin secreting tumours.



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Marshall Swerman asked:


The endocrine system consists of glands that, through the secretion of hormones, regulate just about every aspect of your body in very specific ways. Almost every cell and organ of the body is regulated by the endocrine system.

The word endocrine is derived from the Greek terms “endo” meaning within and “krine” meaning to secrete or separate. The glands in the endocrine system secrete hormones within the body.

A hormone is a chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs. These hormones are the messengers of the endocrine system, influencing such things as metabolic activity, reproduction, mood, growth and body development. It’s interesting that the word hormone is derived from the Greek “hormao” meaning “I set in motion” or “I stir up”. This is exactly what hormones do.

So, a gland secretes a hormone into the blood and that hormone circulates throughout the body. When it meets up with the organ of the body it is supposed to have an effect upon that hormone goes into the cells of that organ and produces the required effect.

The way the system is built a hormone only affects the organ it is supposed to effect. This is due to the fact that each hormone molecule has a different shape. The cells that are supposed to be controlled by that hormone “recognize” that particular shape. The part of the body which is affected by a particular hormone is called the “target organ”.

Some of the major glands of the endocrine system are:

- Pituitary gland

- Hypothalamus

- Pineal Gland

- Thyroid

- Parathyroids

- Adrenal Glands

- Reproductive Glands (including ovaries and testes)

The Pituitary Gland, although no bigger than a pea, is considered the most important part of the endocrine system. It’s often called the “master gland” because it makes hormones that control other endocrine glands. One of the essential hormones released by the pituitary is the Human Growth Hormone which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the body’s handling of nutrients and minerals.

They Hypothalamus is the main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. One of its functions is to control the pituitary gland.

The cone-shaped Pineal Gland secretes a hormone called melatonin which is thought to regulate sleep patterns.

Thyroid hormones control the rate at which the body burns fuel.

Among other functions, the Adrenal Glands produce a hormone called epinephrine or adrenaline which control the body’s “fight or flight” mechanism by controlling blood pressure and heart rate.

The Parathyroids are attached to the thyroid. They are responsible for regulating the amount of calcium in the blood.

Reproductive Glands are the main source of sex hormones and control many of the reproductive functions of the human body.

Endocrine system or hormone problems can come about when any one of these glands produces too much or too little of its hormone. The type and extent of any hormone disorder determines the treatment.

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G M Wani asked:


Introduction

            India has approximately one billion animals for a billion humans. We need less animals to sustain our present productivity if proper gene propagation and animal reproduction methods used. Our per animal production is much less. Inspite of this weakness our per unit cost of production of livestock products is not only less but is economical. This is why, our livestock farming exists without any subsidy and has great potential to be sustainable. Thus, competitive economic livestock production systems are our strengths. Details of economics of goat management systems have been reviewed (Wani, 2002). Similar evaluation in other livestock species viz. Cattle, buffaloes and sheep do reveal positive trends. The improvements in our traditional and reproductive management of buffaloes have won us the first rank in world milk production. Our grains are however over shadowed by export restrictions to developed and developing countries except Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Our poor zoo-sanitary conditions are responsible for it. Thus our first requirement in future is to provide sensitive, accurate and timely disease surveillance and diagnostics, so as to make our milk or meat surplus areas as disease-fre-zones. Per capita meat requirement as per ICMR recommendations is 25 gms per day. We produce at present only 9 gm per person per day. This critical gap abridgement needs more emphasis on enhancing meat production. These two priorities should be the main objectives of this review.

(2) Zoo-sanitation and bio-safety

            With production of 78 million tones of milk in 1999-2000, India ranks first in global milk production. It has Rs. 113 million worth milk products in export godowns. There are few buyers. Except Sri Lanka and Bangladesh none dares to import our cheap milk and meat productions, for fear of disease transmission. Our poor zoo-sanitary  conditions is our weakness. Our products fail to complete products from other countries, as their products appear to be safer. The lobbing by rich, media hippie world puts our livestock products at disadvantage even with our own Asian neighbours, whose bio-safety measures are more accurate and sensitive than us.

            The use of artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer(ET) have helped in elite gene propagation. “Dolley” the super sheep is known and many more genetic clones are in offering. Today our concern is bio-safety of germplasm and the animal products. With high risk of new disease emergence all researchers are warned to use their materials with caution. The “mad cow disease” and heavy economic losses in U.K. and Europe are eye openers for all  of us. The future of gene technology lies in bio-safety and fulfillment of international zoo-sanitation regulations. Disease free zones need more emphasis than producing high  yielding livestock from disease infested areas. Thus safe and quality animal material (germplasm) and products is the slogan for tomorrow. Zoo sanitation certifications will demand more trained veterinarians.

(3) Gene propagation and utilization

            For production and utilization of elite gene pool of animals, we need to know our own resources, both biological and material. For example, increasing  meat/milk or fibre production from our small ruminants we need to know them better. We must analyse their gene pool both qualitatively and quantitatively as was done in goats( Gall et al., 1997) use DNA techniques. Once we know merits and demerits of our gene pool, could we preserve them or utilize them for further up-gradation. A small attempt of buck exchange in Ladakh and better use from identified tribes helped in the fine pashmina production, which awaits suitable markets. Mongolia crossed their pashmina goats with Russian “Don goats”. The quantity of pashmina increased but the quality reduced. We are fortunate that due to our criticism, J&K avoided introduction of Don goats in Ladakh, otherwise by now we would have lost the only quality “fine pashmina” of Kashmir (Wani et al., 195; Gall et al., 1997).

(4) Endocrinological advances 

            Ovarian oogenic and endocrine functions are interlocked via Hypothalamo-Hypophysial-Gonadal Axis (HHGA). The cyclicity and its behavioural overt and covert phase are instrinsic to these ovarian functions. The have been thus rightly named as “the Zeitgeber  or biological clock (Baird, 1987). The existence of feedback loops of ovarian steroids with respective gonadotrphin is biphasic phenomenon, where higher concentrations in blood have inhibitory or suppressive effects, low considerations have stimulatory effects (Barac Lough, 1973). Many reproductive mechanisms hang on changes in these ovarian steroids such as labour pains (Csapo, 1981), ovulatory failures (Sancheq-Crado et al., 1990). Interestingly these hormones interact to modify or sometimes antagonize each other. For example P4 appears to be potent antagonist of E2 at a combined ration  of 1:1 (Heap and Flint, 1987). The synergism ,agonistic and antagonistic actions of these hormones combinations are the basis for all reproduction manipulations viz.  Control of oestrus, ovulation, conception, gestation, fertility, infertility, contraception and or abortions. Fish and sheep ovarian extracts were tested to find out interclass sensitivity. It seems it is possible to tap huge fish ovarian extracts for intra and interpolation in mammalian ovary (Najar, 1999). Coming years will see more attempts to use such resources to avoid side effects from chemical and synthetic analogues of hormones.

5. Follicular atresia   

          GnRH- regulates gonadotrpin release from pituitary, but its continuous and prolonged use in natural from or as its potent agonist induces an inhibitory effect on ovarian steroidogenesis , follicular development and ovulation (Kledzik et al., 1978; Srivastawa et al., 1995) GnRH receptor gene encoding is expressed in the rat ovary (Kaiser et al., 1992). A new concept prevails today which postulates that an intrinsic GnRH system competes with receptor. Thus its biological response exist within the ovary. The follicular atresia is brought by this  intrinsic GnRH system (IGS) (Erickson et al., 1994) A new vision of autocrine and paracrine secretion of ovary vis-in-vis GnRH becomes evident.Future modulations in correcting reproductive failure involving hormone thereby needs rational understanding of all endocrine, autorine and related control mechanisms. Ovarectomized ewes when implanted with E2 and P4 implants were maintained in an artificial follicular phase. This speaks of an endocrine model compatible to a natural sequencing hormones of desired levels (Karsh and Evans, 1996).

6. Instrinsic GnRH system (IGS)

            Two theoretical  models called deterministic and permissive models have been put forth to explain of GnRH(Karsch et al., 1977).

Deterministic model

 

            Deterministic model envisages that a surge-like increase in GnRH is needed to induce preovulatory LH surge. This model befits animals whose LH release and ovulation is either time bound (Copulation) or signal dependant (cervical signal, rabbit and neural signal Central circadian pacemaker in rats refers).

Permissive models

            Permissive models explain GnRH in relation to ovulatory LH surge. Here feed back of steroids exert their influence on anterior pituitary gland. This is supported by evidences that LH surge continue in situations where GnRH secretion is apparently abolished. For example in monkeys with hypothalamic lesions, or in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea or congenital GnRH deficiency, normal LH surges (Martin et al., 1990)

7. Hormone Agonists/antagonists 

            Hormone antagonist or anti-hormone are those compounds or elements which prevent an endogenous hormones from exerting its biological efft(s) (Vanlook, 1988). These anti-hormone need to be safe i.e. free from side effects. The hormone antagonists in principal acts in 3 ways.

i)                  Inhibition of hormone synthesis

ii)                Neutralising hormone action by specific antibodies.

iii)             Blocking the receptors of the hormone/

Use of antagonists, agonists have demonstrated their role in ovulation control.

Their cow histamine-releasing activity (Fraser, 1981) support their wider use which needs further extensive studies. More details are reviewed (Najar, 1999).

8. Reproductive failures –GnRH mechanism. 

            The biggest problem in ovarian manipulation faced in the past was due to varied superovulatory response (Wani, 1984). The follicular atresia was postulated to reduce this constrain if induced adequately. As our atresia was postulated to reduce this constraint if induced adequately. As our understanding of (IGS) intrinsic GnRH system was poor them, we could not use it to overcome our problems. Now we know follicular atresia is related to this IGS (Erickson et al ., 1994) and therefore, our later manipulations incorporated GnRH became the subject of discussion. Estrogen alone can induce ovulation but for CNS (Central Nervous System) priming progesterone combination in desired ratio is essential (Evans et al., 1995). Thus future modulations in correcting reproductive failures needs a proper understanding of hormonal inter and intra polation with physical , chemical, biological and neuroendocrine secretion. Pheromones and other phycoemotional factors too need an analysis.

            In our experiments on infertility (anoestrus) in cows of Kashmir (District Budgam) we were puzzled to see better response with low doses (300 µg) of GnRH than the higher dose of 400 µg (Shah, 1996). We are unable to explain our results until the recent studies on permissive and deterministic models of GnRH action came to light (Karsch and Evans, 1996, Karsch et al., 1997).

9. Herbal – biostimulators

Pheromones, sires introduction effects, sensory reflexus and vast other stimulants increase receptivity as well as fertility in domestic animals. Sprays and herbal cure products will be in great demand to increase or decrease fertility in coming years. The use of stimulants or repellents as sprays and sprays and scents may be in need. Herbal cures for various reproductive wastage needs further research. The use of herbal products, fruits, nuts and medicaments in ancient Kashmiri culture after delivery, need to be looked  at. The Cichorium spp, saffron, Cofula anthemoides, Prunella vulgaris, Artemisa and other products in use during post delivery period needs scientific analysis.

The ovarian sensitivity decrease soon after parturition and its resurgence after 14 days in cows, 40 odd days in women and specific periods in other animals, reveal a lot which needs exploration to phase out various sequences of reproduction.

10. Corpora luteal biosensitivity

            Corpus luteum growth and development is the earliest pregnancy signal along with maternal recognition factors discussed (Wani, 1996). The corpus luteum development and receptivity to PGF2 alpha is now known. The ascending and descending corpora lutea are insensitive to PGF2 alpha. What makes them insensitive and what resurges their sensitivity need exploration. May be in future, CL insensitivity might have direct effects on survival of the conceptus. Does conceptus make CL more sensitive to PGF2 alpha? Or in other words, does the gravid CL and non-gravid CL behave similarly or differently toPGF­2 alpha. Many such questions vis-à-vis the ovarian morphology, uterine environment and behavioural patterns need to be studied and co-related to develop a manipulative and curative safe system. In some species CL of pregnancy in necessary till delivery, in others it is needed only till placenta develops. Its complete genesis and biostimulation and bioregulatory role are obscure and needs further research.

11. Dominant follicle dynamics 

            The dominant follicle dynamics may be in focus for ovulation control. Dominant follicle or would be bride at each ovulation appears around day 7 of cycle in women. It occurs much earlier on day – 1 to 0 in ruminants (cow, sheep, goats). This time point may be the focus to try future selective interferences in ovulation control. Antagonist use during this phase has shown decreasing levels of oestrogens in serum thereby indirectly hinting at dominant follicle alteration, as it is one of chief source of this hormone during this phase (Fraser, 1987). Dominant follicle in its sojourn to freedom and release at ovulation seems to attain some specific qualities. Why? It alone releases itself of bondage’s in ovary (Ovulation) and rest of its competitors are hindered through the process as atretic follicles. What makes this dominant follicle to attain these qualities among a vast pool of follicles needs further study. In coming 50 years one shall possibly understand and interlock a pre-determined messenger system triggering dominance in one or few follicles destined to become the new offspring of that species. This system when decoded shall offer new opportunities in controlling ovulation both for contraception (women) or augmentation (animals). New genepool of dominant follicles from dead high yielding animal ovaries would help to propagate and multiply the elite.

12. Development of conceptus – in vitro foetus

            The lean meat production needs more studies on development of conceptus. We know that prenatal development undergoes in three stages. During early pregnancy skeletal & nervous tissues grow, on priority. During mid-gestation the hind and fore-limbs develop. During late gestation muscular development along with peripheral extremities including hair develop. In order to increase lean meat production, research in needed to investigate relationship between hard and soft tissues. Maternal and foetal interactions needs a probe. Some basic studies 9Mufti, 1996) indicated prospects of manipulating lean meat production (Wani, 2001, 2002 a) by bio-stimulators during late gestation, which may help, the production of muscular lambs/kids at birth, besides, increasing birth weights. More details have been described (Wani, 2001, 2002a)          (Fig. 1-5). More studies in future are  needed to reveal the exact mechanism involved in critical transition of power control from maternal to embryonic genome. Application of recent techniques of reverse transcription, PCR and other may reveal the details (Schultz et al., 1990).

13. Slaughter house follicle pool

            A good number of our endangered species die in wild , where climatic conditions are hard and harsh. Under temperate climatic conditions dead bodies are entrapped in snow for long. It gives a hope to revive their follicular pool. Our studies on resumption of life using follicles from slaughtered sheep and fertilizing them with epididymal semen was an pioneering attempt in this direction (Wani, 1996) (Fig 6-8). The protein content of unfertilized ovum is around 100 mg in rabbit, 27 mg in mouse (Brinster, 1967,1971). This small genetic material needs extensive analysis to unveil vast information in its condans and anticodnas. Further ovum maturation or resumption of merosis is initiated during birth or shortly before birth and thus the pool of follicles remains fixed at birth. Therefore, foetal ovary has to be the subject of further manipulations especially in view of its immunological insensitivity (Guraya, 1985).

14 Gamete biosafety

            Bacterial counts in semen in unprecedented numbers effect semen fertility (Kher and Dholokia, 1985), The contaminational hazards have increased due to environmental pollution, water and air contamination. Above all the development of resistance of known bateria and other micro-organism to antibiotics (Gupta and Maurya, 1993). We have examined the semen of about 40 bulls maintained at the Frozen semen bank, Rambirbag, Kashmir for bacterial loads in semen and tested antibiotic sensitivity (Koul, 2002).

            Presence of bacteria in large numbers in semen, effects its quality and fertility (Kher and Dhololkia, 1985). The source of contamination of semen vary from inflammatory foci and lesions on penile apparatus, contaminations on equipments, appliances, diluters, extenders air and laboratory environment. These contamination hazards have increased with environmental pollution. Many bacteria having developed resistance of routine antibiotics used (Gupta and Maurya, 1993) in semen extenders has made inseminations more critical and vulnerable. More studies in this direction are needed to develop a bio-safe and infection free germplasm pool of frozen and fresh in future.

15. Foetal muscular development

            Genetics, hormonal and environmental factors influence foetal growth and development. The proper in-utero maturation and growth of foetus signify proper care and management of gravid nannies. The pre-natal development of foetus is exhibited at birth weight. The head and skeletal tissues grow and mature earlier, followed by fore and hind limbs. The muscular development of foetus occurs during late gestation. Thus, during early pregnancy nervous and skeletal tissues are having priority for nutritive requirements in-utero (Mufti, 1966). Maternal nutrition is important for growth and development of meat in off spring in-utero. Muscular growth stimulants may thus help production of quality meat lambs or kinds in future.

16. Foeto-maternal interaction

      The role of endometrial stromal cells during pre-implantation stage needs further research. Some studies on ultrastructure  of endometrium (Brinsfield et al., 1974) are still not sufficient to answer the questions. What is the role of immune cells and endometrial cells in building of the immunological barrier to protect the foetus. Foetal biology is a barren field of research in the world. After few initial steps by Dr. Moris Young in UK and Dr. Srivastava in India, only a scattered information is available on the subject (Wani and Buchoo, 1990; Mufti, 1960). Much is still to be unveiled. The placental hormone influence mammary development and milk production of the dam. This needs further research . Foetal membranes serve as chief source of nutritive exchange (Fig. 9). The arrangement of cotyledons, caruncles, positioning of single (Fig. 10) and twin (Fig. 11) conceptus, indicate complex mechanisms with common roots. These mechanisms of foeto-maternal  interactions and relationships emphasize proper foetal number diagnosis and corresponding materno-nutritional management strategies.

17.  Small ruminant reproduction

            There is a need of ovulation, pregnancy and foetal number detection by methods described (Wani, 1981, 1982; Wani and Sahni, 1980,1981; Wani and Buchoo, 1991, 1993). These reports demonstrated successful results ovulation detection, multiple ovulation predictions, early pregnancy and foetal numbers. The induction of multiple ovulation, in-vitro fertilisations, embryo collections, embryo collections, embryo culture, conservation, micromanipulation, splitting, cloning and sexing are some of the reproductive high-tech applications used to increase reproduction rates (wani, 1996; wani et al., 1990; Wani et al.,2000 a,b; Buchoo et al ., 2000). These techniques have put a little application under field conditions in small ruminants especially under extensive management system. However, their use has already revolutionized propagation of elite germplasm and can be used under buck mother farms to produce quality sires.

            The futuristic attempts in this direction should include in vitro post implantation and foetal development experiments. These future manipulations at organogenesis level may help to induce desired quality changes in offspring so that dressing percentages could be increased from present 40-50 percent  to 55-60 per cent or more.

18.  Reproductive management

The reproductive management strategies to enhance meat production could safely be divided into two kinds:

i.                   Traditional management : Animals are still managed under zero-input/migratory / tribal or extensive management system. Here the application of above described methods will be limited. The may indirectly help in this system by better sire availability.

ii.                 Modern management : Zero-grazing, stall-fed or semi-intensive, commercial small ruminant farming system may use the above methods more and more to produce high quality germplasm. They use variety of improved   reproductive   techniques     described    or     reported    (Wani,

1966; Wani et al ., 2000a; Wani et al .,1998; Mufti et al., 1997; Wani and Sahni, 1981; Wani et al., 1986, 1987, 1988; Wani and Buchoo, 1991; Buchoo and Wani,1991; Wani, 1989; Wani,1995; Wani, 1984a and b; Wani and Sahni, 1980a).

 

19.  Enhancement of fertility

            Desired fertility objectives have been discussed (Wani,2001). Increased prolificacy, early rebreeding, safe/clean parturition, set-time animal crop, elite gene introduction are some of the desired fertility enhancement goals. The constraints in achieving desired objectives in small ruminant livestock sector are the problems of inbreeding, reproductive losses (Wani, et al., 1980; 1994), pre-pubertal mating, indiscriminate or illicit mating, venereal diseases, nutritional and other stresses. These above referred factors reduce fertility status of our ruminants especially under trans-humane migratory systems.

            These constraints mentioned could be overcomed by adopting enhancement strategies (Wani, 2001), which include exchange of sires by tribal, Gujjar, Bakarwals and Chopans to reduce inbreeding. This could be ensured through legislature or forced castrations and introduction of sires from outside the flock. The pregnancy detection methods described (Wani, 1981) and lateron used extensively in J&K under farm condition (Wani et al., 1998; Wani, 1989) needs adoption as a routine in each flock for better care of offspring and dam.

20.  Nutritional bio-conversion

            The nutritional status of dams before mating could be improved by grazing them in pastures having 4-5 cm sward height herbage, yielding 1500 kgs and above of dry matter per hectare. Such pasturing shall increase ovulation. Reduced sward height pastures needs supplementation and introduction of nutritional block atleast 4-5 weeks before mating. Thus proper feeding 100 days prior to mating and parturition may help in healthy and heavy weight lamb/kid crop.  

            The pasture nutrient analysis and its supplementation as per requirement may help to avoid losses due to such deficiencies as cobalt, iron, phosphorus etc. which effect herbage and through herbage the animal health. The sire fertility test and use of disease free semen is the foremost requirement  towards increased productivity from small ruminants.

            The nutrition plays important role in maintaining fertility status of animals. With decrease in land for fodder cultivation, alternate sources and technologies to utilize agricultural waste for animal food is needed. The biotechnological intrervention in converting crop residues and other agri-horticulture waste into animal feed needs further research.



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